Approaches to Communication

Introduction

Communication is a domain in the Interdisciplinary Learning strand and is a key aspect of all student learning. All teachers are responsible for the development of communication knowledge and skills in the subjects they teach. The challenge for schools is to develop students’ skills, knowledge and understanding in communication to take account of the diversity of literacy demands in the different learning contexts, as well as in social, cultural and linguistic contexts within and beyond school.

Communication and literacy

Communication is broadly concerned with literacy and the key role that literacy plays in all learning. The following definition of literacy describes how reading and writing are integrated with speaking, listening and critical thinking. It emphasises the importance of context, the purposeful nature of literacy, and the role of literacy in developing knowledge and understanding. It also emphasises the lifelong development of effective literacy.

Literacy is the ability to read and use written language and to write appropriately, in a range of contexts. It is used to develop knowledge and understanding, to achieve personal growth and to function effectively in our society. Literacy also includes the recognition of numbers and basic mathematical signs and symbols within text. Literacy involves the integration of speaking, listening and critical thinking with reading and writing. Effective literacy is intrinsically purposeful, flexible and dynamic and continues to develop throughout an individual’s lifetime.

(Australia’s Language and Literacy Policy, DEET, 1991)

Effective teaching of the skills, knowledge and understandings in the Communication domain requires understanding of literacy, and how students develop literacy throughout the school years.

Literacy involves more than decoding of written language. The ‘four resources’ model proposed by Freebody and Luke provides a useful guide to the range of literacy practices that are involved in effective communication. This model attempts to recognise and incorporate many of the current and well-developed techniques for teaching students to become literate. The model describes how effective literacy draws on a ‘repertoire of practices’ that allow learners, as they engage in reading and writing activities, to:

• break the code of texts
• use texts functionally
• participate in the meanings of text
• critically analyse texts.

The proposition is that ‘all these repertoires are variously mixed and orchestrated in proficient reading and writing’. The key concept underlying the model is necessity rather than sufficiency. That is, each repertoire is necessary for effective literacy and communication, but in and of themselves, none of the four sets of resources is sufficient for literate citizens.

These practices can be recognised in the different domains of learning. For example, in Science, students decode and encode written, spoken and visual texts, and this involves, for example, spelling scientific terminology, using simple present tense in writing reports of experiments (Code breaking). They compose and comprehend written, spoken and visual texts, making meaning; for example, using headings, main ideas and supporting details in texts to gather information, or interpret information in drawings, tables, graphs and charts (Meaning making). Students understand the purpose of different spoken, written and visual texts and use texts in different ways for different purposes, including using procedures to follow instructions for an experiment, or using argument to describe the benefits of, for example, mulching gardens (Text using). They also understand how texts position listeners, speakers, readers, writers and viewers; for example, assessing media reports of science, presenting an alternative view on an issue such as genetic engineering (Text analysing).

In The Arts students decode and encode written, spoken and visual texts, and this involves, for example, decoding gestures and movements, or using voice, posture and movement to create a given role (Code breaking). They compose and comprehend written, spoken and visual texts, making meaning; for example, naming the techniques and art mediums such as drawing, painting, collage, printing, weaving, constructing or modelling, or using various symbols/systems of the arts to create mood (Meaning making). They understand the purpose of different spoken, written and visual texts and use texts in different ways for different purposes, including using narratives to retell events in a television program from one character’s point of view, or using explanations to explain how a composition was produced (Text using). They also understand how texts position listeners, speakers, readers, writers and viewers; for example, discussing the use of drama to persuade in television advertising, describing gender differences in dance from different times and places (Text analysing).

(Adapted from Ludwig, 2000)

Explicit teaching

The skills, knowledge and understandings identified in the Communication standards require explicit teaching. At all levels, teachers should model and demonstrate the conventions and language forms specific to all domains. In the early years, teachers model conventions in discussion such as listening attentively and taking turns. Later on, teachers will model the use of technical terms, and text forms and structures, relevant to particular domains.

Specialised vocabulary in each learning area should be the focus of explicit instruction about the precise meaning conveyed by this vocabulary. This vocabulary includes terms specific to the learning context such as the names of physical features in the landscape or chemical elements or techniques used in metalwork or processes used in food preparation. It also includes everyday language that has specific meaning in some learning contexts, such as beside, next to, above and under in mathematics. There are differences in meaning in expressions used in science such as ‘the temperature rose to ten degrees’ and ‘the temperature rose from ten degrees’. In all learning areas, teachers should display and discuss the correct spelling of specific terms.

The forms and structures of language relevant to different domains and learning contexts also require explicit teaching. The structures and appropriate forms of oral language, as well as those of written and multimodal texts, should be explicitly taught. 

Communication strategies

At all stages of schooling students should be encouraged to use a repertoire of strategies for comprehending and interpreting texts, and for presenting ideas and information to a range of audiences. This includes strategies to support comprehension such as making connections with prior knowledge, using headings and subheadings, or reading graphical information, note taking, using data charts to record information, using concept maps, and making timelines.

Curriculum literacies

The term ‘curriculum literacies’ is used to highlight the complex variations between the literacy demands of different domains, and learning contexts. There is a clear recognition of the need to explicitly teach students to understand and use these curriculum literacies.

Within professional learning teams, discussions about specific curriculum literacies are of value for all teachers. These discussions could focus on:

• terminology and specific vocabulary
• symbolic codes
• relationships between everyday language and subject-specific language
• the language of the processes in a subject or learning activity, such as design and technology processes
• the differences between students’ literacy achievement levels and the actual reading and writing demands of different domains
• the language appropriate to the full range of classroom interactions.

In any class, students switch between different forms of communication such as listening to the teacher or peers, reading from notes, planning a piece of writing, and presenting information to others. Many students need support in switching between forms, and explicit cueing from teachers about changes of focus and activity in the classroom provides scaffolding for students.

Context, purpose and audience

Students’ need explicit teaching at all levels about ways the discourses of different domains vary according to context, purpose and audience. As students progress through school, they develop the capacity to communicate effectively in an increasingly wide range of contexts, for many purposes, and to a variety of familiar and unfamiliar audiences.

Selecting texts

The texts used by students should be selected according to a range of criteria, including:

• Does the book teach research skills?
• Does the text support students to develop ways of organising ideas?
• What does the text do about vocabulary?
• Does the text simplify the subject language or simplify the subject?
• Does the text provide opportunities for students to investigate, hypothesise, and participate?
• Does the text acknowledge the values of particular positions?
• Does the text encourage any form of social action?

(Adapted from Wooldridge, 2000)

References

Department of Employment, Education and Training 1991, Australia’s Language: The Australian Language and Literacy Policy, Canberra.

Green, B. 1988, ‘Subject specific literacy and school learning: A focus on writing’, Australian Journal of Education, vol. 32, no. 2.

Ludwig, C. 2000, Literacy in the learning areas: A proposition, Literacy Learning: the Middle Years, vol. 8, no. 1.

Luke, A. & Freebody, P. 1999, ‘A map of possible practices: Further notes on the four resources model’, Practically Primary, 4(2), 5–8, Australian Literacy Educators’ Association, Adelaide.

Wooldridge, N. 2000, ‘Literacy in learning area textbooks’, Literacy Learning: the Middle Years, vol. 8, no. 1.